تويت
Phrase Structure Rules
and Phrase Structure
Trees
Quick Review:
There are words
Some words can’t both appear together:
*the some hats
Some words seem to occupy the same
position in a sentence:
Sarah likes pizza! ! Matt hates hamburgers
These words are the same syntactic
category, which can be proven with
distribution tests
Some words seem to belong together:
The crazy instructor is a tree-hugging vegetarian
Groups of words that belong together are called
constituents, and can be proven by constituency
tests: Substitution, Movement, Short Answer,
Coordination
There are problems with the constituency tests,
but these tell us where our theory needs work!
When you run into a problem, you need to think
“outside of the box”
When you run into a problem, you need to think
“outside of the box”
The Box
You
Draw four lines, and have
them go through every dot,
without taking ‘your pencil’
off of ‘the paper’.
The lines have to go
outside of the box
Each constituent seems to behave like one of its
components: the red mat = it
The component that determines the properties of
the constituent is the head, and the constituent
can be referred to as a phrase: e.g. noun phrase
If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge:
D N
the instructor! ! ! = NP
D N
a friend! ! ! ! ! ! = NP
D N
some homework! ! = NP
D N
two classes! ! ! ! = NP
some more patterns:
V D N
call the instructor!! ! = VP
V D N
meet a friend! ! ! ! ! = VP
V D N
do some homework!! ! = VP
V D N
skip two classes! ! ! ! = VP
and yet more patterns:
P D N
with the instructor! ! = PP
P D N
from a friend! ! ! ! ! = PP
P D N
with some homework! = PP
P D N
after two classes! ! ! = PP
So what’s the point?
Phrase Structure Rules = rules for determining
the structure of phrases
D N! ! ! ! ! D!! N!! ! ! ! ! D!! ! ! N
the linguist! ! ! a friend! ! ! some homework
“noun phrases always have a D and an N”
NP -> D N
P! ! D N!! ! ! ! ! P!! D!! N!! ! ! !
with the linguist!! ! from a friend! ! !
“prepositional phrases always have a P and an NP”
PP -> P NP
V D N!! ! ! ! V! D! ! N!! ! V D N
run a marathon! ! eat the food!! ! read the book
V P D N V P D N
go to the store! talk with a teacher
V D N P D N
take your sister to the library
“Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and
(sometimes) a PP”
VP -> V (NP) (PP)
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
NP -> D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
PP -> P NP! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! from!the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
VP -> V NP! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! V D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! read! the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
VP -> V PP!! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
So now we just need a list of Phrase Structure
Rules:
D Mod A N P N! ! ! =NP!
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
why (D) = ! LA must be an NP as well as an N to
! ! ! ! ! ! be in the PP [in LA]
why (AP*) = my rich handsome lazy friend
why (PP*) = my friend in LA with the convertible
* = as many as you want
Mod A =AP!
very lazy
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
why (Mod) = !lazy
why (PP) = proud of himself
Mod P N =PP!
(right) in LA
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
why (NP) = i’m going there
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
! ! ! ! ! NP
Aux V P D N Adv
My very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Adv! ! ! = AdvP
tomorrow
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
why (Mod) = very infrequently
why (PP) = I wrote the book independently of him
V P! D! ! N!! ! Adv!! ! ! = VP
go to the beach tomorrow
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
why (AdvP) = probably go to the beach
why (NP) (NP) = give me five dollars
why (PP*) = go to the beach in his convertible
why (AdvP*) = go to the beach briefly tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! PP
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
VP
! PP
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
Now we just need to put the NP and VP together
with the Aux:
S -> NP (Aux) VP
why (Aux):!John (has) left
S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
First: Label the categories
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Second: Look for single words that form phrases
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Third: Look for any complete NPs
NP -> (D) (AP*) (PP*)
HINT: For clear trees, draw the NP directly over the N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Fourth: Look for any complete APs
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
HINT: For clear trees, draw the phrase label directly over
the head (e.g. NP directly over N)
! ! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Fifth: Look for any complete PPs
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Sixth: Look for any NPs or APs that have become
complete (because PPs could be part of them)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Sixth: Look for any VPs
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
Next: Look for any other phrases that need to be
completed (in general, start with NPs and PPs, as they
form the basis for most phrases)
There are no more for this tree.... just S.
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Finally, when all phrases are done, it’s time for S:
S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Do you love the trees?
But what is the point?
But what is the point?
Sentences are not 1 dimensional:
But what is the point?
Sentences are not 1 dimensional:
Sentences are 2 dimensional:
There is more to the structure of a sentence than
just the order of the words (PS - that should blow
your mind)
Words are arranged into a hierarchy... that is,
sentences are hierarchical, or have hierarchical
structure.
But who cares?
Nim Chimpsky does!
Hierarchical Structure (or more precisely Phrase
Structure) is what enables human language to be
infinite:
Clare thinks John ate dinner
Ellen thinks Clare thinks John ate dinner
...
Once S is part of VP, it can extend forever:
S -> NP (Aux)! VP
! ! Ellen! ! ! VP -> V S
! ! ! ! ! ! thinks! ! S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Clare! ! VP -> V S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! thinks! ...! !
We call this recursion: a function is said to be recursive if it
uses itself as part of its definition.
In this case, the function is ‘building an S’, which uses S as
part of its definition.
Of course, because there is a VP definition without S (VP ->
V for instance), not all sentences go on forever.
! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
NP! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! NP
N V N V N
Clare thinks John ate dinner.
Connecting S to V requires
a new rule:
VP -> V S
So, hierarchical structure is important (and thus
trees are important) because they make language
recursive.
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Why not complete this NP?
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump ... soon
*it on my red mat will jump ... soon
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump ... soon
it will jump ... soon
SO: your fat cat on my red mat is the constituent
New Definitions:
Constituent: the set of all nodes that are
dominated by a single node
Node: the beginning or end of a branch, usually has
a label
Label: NP, VP, PP, AP, AdvP, etc...
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Final Rule:! ! ! ! ! S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
nodes
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
branches
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
labels (for nodes)
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
mother
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
daughter
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
daughter
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
sisters
REALLY IMPORTANT relation:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
dominance/dominate:
VP dominates NP
because only
‘downward’ branches
connect VP to NP
Define constituent in terms of dominance
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent:
the set of nodes
dominated by a single
node
So, constituents are represented in trees through
nodes dominating other nodes.
And constituents can be tested and verified
through constituency tests.
The last two examples on the practice sheet had
the same tree structure.
So we would predict that they would behave the
same with respect to constituency tests...
! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N D N P N
the student from England!! ! the student of Philosophy
one substitution:
Jack met the student from England,
and I met the one from France.
*Jack met the student of Philosophy,
and I met the one of Greek.
! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! *NP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N D N P N
the one from England!! ! the one of Philosophy
one = N! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! *one = N
Proposal:
The structure of these two NPs is actually
different, such that student is a constituent in one
of them, but not the other.
We will call this constituent N’
(pronounced “N bar”)
And we will say that one can only substitute for N’
! ! NP
! ! N’!
! ! ! N’! PP!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the student from England
! ! NP
! ! N’!
! ! ! N’!! PP!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the one from England
! ! NP
! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the student of Philosophy
! ! *NP
! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the one of Philosophy
This solution offers a prediction:
If “of philosophy” attaches directly to N to form N’
and if “from England” attaches to N’ but not N
then the order “from England of Philosophy”
shouldn’t be possible (because “of Philosophy would
then be attaching to N’, and should be replaceable
by one)
The test:
I met the student of Philosophy from England
*I met the student from England of Philosophy
Our PS Rules need to be adjusted to allow for the
N’ level:
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> (AP) N (PP)
Basically, we now have 3 levels rather than 2:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! NP! vs.!! ! N’
! ! ! N!! ! ! ! ! N
But do we see the need for 3 levels with other phrases?
John will buy a book on Tuesday, and
Sharon will do so on Friday
buy a book on Tuesday is a VP
But do so is replacing only buy a book.
So buy a book must form some sort of constituent...
Maybe V’?
! VP
! V’
! V’! ! ! ! P
! ! ! ! NP!! ! NP
! ! ! ! N’! ! ! N’
! V D N P N
!!
buy a book on Tuesday
! VP
! V’
! V’! ! ! ! P
! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! P N
!
do so on Tuesday
do so = V’
Our PS Rules need to be adjusted to allow for the
V’ level:
VP -> (AdvP) V’! ! ! XP = NP, PP, or AdvP
V’ -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
Again, we now have 3 levels rather than 2:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! VP! vs.!! ! V’
! ! ! V!! ! ! ! ! V
recursion!
VP -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> (Adv) V (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> N (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A’
A’ -> A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P’
P -> P (NP)
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv’
Adv’ -> Adv (PP)
We can add BAR LEVELS
to all of our phrases
VP -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> (Adv) V (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> N (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A’
A’ -> A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P’
P -> P (NP)
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv’
Adv’ -> Adv (PP)
In fact, there is a pattern:
XP -> (ZP) X’
X’ -> (YP) X’ (YP)
X’ -> X (WP)
We call this X’-Theory
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP HEAD
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP Complement
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP
Adjunct
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP
Specifier
We can also define these positions using the
relationship terminology we saw earlier:
Head: V, N, A, P, Adv, etc (need a starting point)
Complement: sister of a head, daughter of X’
Adjunct: sister of X’, daughter of X’
Specifier: sister of X’, daughter of XP
practice bar levels
and Phrase Structure
Trees
Quick Review:
There are words
Some words can’t both appear together:
*the some hats
Some words seem to occupy the same
position in a sentence:
Sarah likes pizza! ! Matt hates hamburgers
These words are the same syntactic
category, which can be proven with
distribution tests
Some words seem to belong together:
The crazy instructor is a tree-hugging vegetarian
Groups of words that belong together are called
constituents, and can be proven by constituency
tests: Substitution, Movement, Short Answer,
Coordination
There are problems with the constituency tests,
but these tell us where our theory needs work!
When you run into a problem, you need to think
“outside of the box”
When you run into a problem, you need to think
“outside of the box”
The Box
You
Draw four lines, and have
them go through every dot,
without taking ‘your pencil’
off of ‘the paper’.
The lines have to go
outside of the box
Each constituent seems to behave like one of its
components: the red mat = it
The component that determines the properties of
the constituent is the head, and the constituent
can be referred to as a phrase: e.g. noun phrase
If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge:
D N
the instructor! ! ! = NP
D N
a friend! ! ! ! ! ! = NP
D N
some homework! ! = NP
D N
two classes! ! ! ! = NP
some more patterns:
V D N
call the instructor!! ! = VP
V D N
meet a friend! ! ! ! ! = VP
V D N
do some homework!! ! = VP
V D N
skip two classes! ! ! ! = VP
and yet more patterns:
P D N
with the instructor! ! = PP
P D N
from a friend! ! ! ! ! = PP
P D N
with some homework! = PP
P D N
after two classes! ! ! = PP
So what’s the point?
Phrase Structure Rules = rules for determining
the structure of phrases
D N! ! ! ! ! D!! N!! ! ! ! ! D!! ! ! N
the linguist! ! ! a friend! ! ! some homework
“noun phrases always have a D and an N”
NP -> D N
P! ! D N!! ! ! ! ! P!! D!! N!! ! ! !
with the linguist!! ! from a friend! ! !
“prepositional phrases always have a P and an NP”
PP -> P NP
V D N!! ! ! ! V! D! ! N!! ! V D N
run a marathon! ! eat the food!! ! read the book
V P D N V P D N
go to the store! talk with a teacher
V D N P D N
take your sister to the library
“Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and
(sometimes) a PP”
VP -> V (NP) (PP)
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
NP -> D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
PP -> P NP! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! from!the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
VP -> V NP! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! V D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! read! the book
Phrase Structure Rules can be represented
visually as trees:
VP -> V PP!! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
So now we just need a list of Phrase Structure
Rules:
D Mod A N P N! ! ! =NP!
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
why (D) = ! LA must be an NP as well as an N to
! ! ! ! ! ! be in the PP [in LA]
why (AP*) = my rich handsome lazy friend
why (PP*) = my friend in LA with the convertible
* = as many as you want
Mod A =AP!
very lazy
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
why (Mod) = !lazy
why (PP) = proud of himself
Mod P N =PP!
(right) in LA
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
why (NP) = i’m going there
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! NP! ! ! !
D! mod! A!! ! N!! ! P N
my very lazy friend in LA
! ! ! ! ! NP
Aux V P D N Adv
My very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Adv! ! ! = AdvP
tomorrow
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
why (Mod) = very infrequently
why (PP) = I wrote the book independently of him
V P! D! ! N!! ! Adv!! ! ! = VP
go to the beach tomorrow
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
why (AdvP) = probably go to the beach
why (NP) (NP) = give me five dollars
why (PP*) = go to the beach in his convertible
why (AdvP*) = go to the beach briefly tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! PP
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*) AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
Rules thus far:
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
VP
! PP
! ! ! ! NP!! !AdvP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
V P D N Adv
go to the beach tomorrow
Now we just need to put the NP and VP together
with the Aux:
S -> NP (Aux) VP
why (Aux):!John (has) left
S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
First: Label the categories
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Second: Look for single words that form phrases
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Third: Look for any complete NPs
NP -> (D) (AP*) (PP*)
HINT: For clear trees, draw the NP directly over the N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Fourth: Look for any complete APs
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)
HINT: For clear trees, draw the phrase label directly over
the head (e.g. NP directly over N)
! ! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Fifth: Look for any complete PPs
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Sixth: Look for any NPs or APs that have become
complete (because PPs could be part of them)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Sixth: Look for any VPs
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
Next: Look for any other phrases that need to be
completed (in general, start with NPs and PPs, as they
form the basis for most phrases)
There are no more for this tree.... just S.
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Finally, when all phrases are done, it’s time for S:
S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP!! ! ! ! PP
!!
! ! ! ! AP!! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! NP! AdvP
! D Mod A N! P N Aux V P D N Adv
my very lazy friend in LA will go to the beach tomorrow
Do you love the trees?
But what is the point?
But what is the point?
Sentences are not 1 dimensional:
But what is the point?
Sentences are not 1 dimensional:
Sentences are 2 dimensional:
There is more to the structure of a sentence than
just the order of the words (PS - that should blow
your mind)
Words are arranged into a hierarchy... that is,
sentences are hierarchical, or have hierarchical
structure.
But who cares?
Nim Chimpsky does!
Hierarchical Structure (or more precisely Phrase
Structure) is what enables human language to be
infinite:
Clare thinks John ate dinner
Ellen thinks Clare thinks John ate dinner
...
Once S is part of VP, it can extend forever:
S -> NP (Aux)! VP
! ! Ellen! ! ! VP -> V S
! ! ! ! ! ! thinks! ! S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Clare! ! VP -> V S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! thinks! ...! !
We call this recursion: a function is said to be recursive if it
uses itself as part of its definition.
In this case, the function is ‘building an S’, which uses S as
part of its definition.
Of course, because there is a VP definition without S (VP ->
V for instance), not all sentences go on forever.
! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
NP! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! NP
N V N V N
Clare thinks John ate dinner.
Connecting S to V requires
a new rule:
VP -> V S
So, hierarchical structure is important (and thus
trees are important) because they make language
recursive.
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Why not complete this NP?
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump ... soon
*it on my red mat will jump ... soon
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump ... soon
it will jump ... soon
SO: your fat cat on my red mat is the constituent
New Definitions:
Constituent: the set of all nodes that are
dominated by a single node
Node: the beginning or end of a branch, usually has
a label
Label: NP, VP, PP, AP, AdvP, etc...
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Rules thus far:
PP -> (Mod) P (NP)! ! ! AdvP -> (Mod) Adv (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A (PP)! ! ! NP -> (D) (AP*) N (PP*)
VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (NP) (PP*) (AdvP*)
! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Final Rule:! ! ! ! ! S -> NP (Aux) VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! S
! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! !
! ! AP! ! ! ! ! AP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! AP! ! AdvP
D A N P D A N Aux V P D A N Adv
Your fat cat on my red mat will jump under that dirty table soon
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
nodes
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
branches
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
labels (for nodes)
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Structure allows us to speak technically about
parts of a sentence:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
mother
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
daughter
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
daughter
Some family relations:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the book
sisters
REALLY IMPORTANT relation:
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
dominance/dominate:
VP dominates NP
because only
‘downward’ branches
connect VP to NP
Define constituent in terms of dominance
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! V!! ! P D N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! read! from!the book
constituent:
the set of nodes
dominated by a single
node
So, constituents are represented in trees through
nodes dominating other nodes.
And constituents can be tested and verified
through constituency tests.
The last two examples on the practice sheet had
the same tree structure.
So we would predict that they would behave the
same with respect to constituency tests...
! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N D N P N
the student from England!! ! the student of Philosophy
one substitution:
Jack met the student from England,
and I met the one from France.
*Jack met the student of Philosophy,
and I met the one of Greek.
! ! NP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! *NP
! ! ! ! ! PP! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N D N P N
the one from England!! ! the one of Philosophy
one = N! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! *one = N
Proposal:
The structure of these two NPs is actually
different, such that student is a constituent in one
of them, but not the other.
We will call this constituent N’
(pronounced “N bar”)
And we will say that one can only substitute for N’
! ! NP
! ! N’!
! ! ! N’! PP!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the student from England
! ! NP
! ! N’!
! ! ! N’!! PP!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the one from England
! ! NP
! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the student of Philosophy
! ! *NP
! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! PP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
D N P N
the one of Philosophy
This solution offers a prediction:
If “of philosophy” attaches directly to N to form N’
and if “from England” attaches to N’ but not N
then the order “from England of Philosophy”
shouldn’t be possible (because “of Philosophy would
then be attaching to N’, and should be replaceable
by one)
The test:
I met the student of Philosophy from England
*I met the student from England of Philosophy
Our PS Rules need to be adjusted to allow for the
N’ level:
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> (AP) N (PP)
Basically, we now have 3 levels rather than 2:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! NP! vs.!! ! N’
! ! ! N!! ! ! ! ! N
But do we see the need for 3 levels with other phrases?
John will buy a book on Tuesday, and
Sharon will do so on Friday
buy a book on Tuesday is a VP
But do so is replacing only buy a book.
So buy a book must form some sort of constituent...
Maybe V’?
! VP
! V’
! V’! ! ! ! P
! ! ! ! NP!! ! NP
! ! ! ! N’! ! ! N’
! V D N P N
!!
buy a book on Tuesday
! VP
! V’
! V’! ! ! ! P
! ! ! ! ! ! ! NP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! N’
! ! ! ! ! P N
!
do so on Tuesday
do so = V’
Our PS Rules need to be adjusted to allow for the
V’ level:
VP -> (AdvP) V’! ! ! XP = NP, PP, or AdvP
V’ -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
Again, we now have 3 levels rather than 2:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! VP
! ! VP! vs.!! ! V’
! ! ! V!! ! ! ! ! V
recursion!
VP -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> (Adv) V (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> N (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A’
A’ -> A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P’
P -> P (NP)
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv’
Adv’ -> Adv (PP)
We can add BAR LEVELS
to all of our phrases
VP -> V’ (XP)
V’ -> (Adv) V (XP)
V’ -> V (XP)
NP -> (D) N’
N’ -> (AP) N’ (PP)
N’ -> N (PP)
AP -> (Mod) A’
A’ -> A (PP)
PP -> (Mod) P’
P -> P (NP)
AdvP -> (Mod) Adv’
Adv’ -> Adv (PP)
In fact, there is a pattern:
XP -> (ZP) X’
X’ -> (YP) X’ (YP)
X’ -> X (WP)
We call this X’-Theory
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP HEAD
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP Complement
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP
Adjunct
Because all phrases have the same general phrase
structure rules, we can define positions based on
their X’ position:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! XP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ZP!! X’
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X’!! ! ! ! YP
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! X! ! WP
Specifier
We can also define these positions using the
relationship terminology we saw earlier:
Head: V, N, A, P, Adv, etc (need a starting point)
Complement: sister of a head, daughter of X’
Adjunct: sister of X’, daughter of X’
Specifier: sister of X’, daughter of XP
practice bar levels
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